Irrigation using hybrid constructed wetland treated domestic sewage: Uptake of phthalic acid esters and antibiotics by Ipomoea aquatica forssk

Irrigation with treated wastewater (WW) has been promoted to meet global water demands. This study investigates the occurrence and accumulation of targeted phthalic acid esters (PAEs) and antibiotics in soil and Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. irrigated with WW discharged from six hybrid constructed wetlands (HCWs), with evaluation of the associated human health risks. Results revealed that HCWs can effectively reduce the transfer of PAEs and antibiotics to soil and I. aquatica. HCW2 (VF-SF-HF) was found to be most efficient for the removal of PAEs (68.4%−95.3%) and antibiotics (28.5%−99.4%). Among the targeted PAEs, the concentration of bis (2-ethyl) hexylphthalate (DEHP) was the highest in irrigation water, soil and I. aquatica, while benzylphthalate (BBP) exhibited the highest bioconcentration factor (BCF_F). Among the targeted antibiotics, the concentration of sulfapyridine (SPD) was highest in various environmental media, while norfloxacin (NFX) exhibited the highest BCF_F. The properties of PAEs and antibiotics were found to be responsible for the differential uptake patterns. The estimation of the threshold of toxicological concern and hazard quotient showed that I. aquatica irrigated with HCWs treated wastewater presented a minor risk to human health. However, comprehensive safety evaluation is required for the widespread use of HCWs treated wastewater for irrigation purposes.